Performance Analysis of Python’s dict() and {}

Some time ago, during a code review, I had a discussion with a colleague of mine about preferring dict() over {} in new Python code. They argued that dict() is more readable — and expresses intent more clearly — therefore should be preferred. I wasn’t convinced by that, but at that time I didn’t have any counterarguments, so I passed.

Yet that made me wonder: what’s the difference between the dict type and {} literal expression?

Let’s go down the rabbit hole.

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Python’s dictionaries

---

First, let’s check what’s the performance difference between the two methods. I’ll use the timeit module for that.

1$ python -m timeit "dict()"
210000000 loops, best of 5: 40 nsec per loop
3$ python -m timeit "{}"
420000000 loops, best of 5: 19.6 nsec per loop

On my MacBook M1 the difference is almost 2x. A non-trivial difference, especially knowing that both of these expressions produce the exact same object.

Where does the difference come from?

Before we get into that, we need to sidetrack a little bit and talk about what happens when you execute Python code. Python is an interpreted language — it needs to have an interpreter. CPython is the most wildly used interpreter of Python; it’s a reference implementation, meaning that other interpreters use it to determine the “correct” behavior. If you’ve installed Python from a default distribution, you have CPython installed on your machine.

Interestingly, CPython is both a compiler and an interpreter. When executing Python code it first compiles it into bytecode instructions and interprets them.

To better understand the performance difference between dist() and {} let’s compare the bytecode instructions they compile into. Python has a built-in module called dis which does exactly that.

 1>>> import dis
 2>>> def a():
 3...   return dict()
 4...
 5>>> def b():
 6...   return {}
 7...
 8>>> dis.dis(a)
 9  1           0 RESUME                   0
10
11  2           2 LOAD_GLOBAL              1 (NULL + dict)
12             12 CALL                     0
13             20 RETURN_VALUE
14>>> dis.dis(b)
15  1           0 RESUME                   0
16
17  2           2 BUILD_MAP                0
18              4 RETURN_VALUE

Although they produce the same end result these two expression, quite clearly, execute different code.

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Bytecode instructions

---

The output of dis.dis isn’t very hard to understand.

1 (1) |    (2)    |          (3)          | (4) |      (5)      
2-----|-----------|-----------------------|-----|---------------
3   1 |         0 | RESUME                | 0   |
4     |           |                       |     |
5   2 |         2 | LOAD_GLOBAL           | 1   | (NULL + dict)
6     |        12 | CALL                  | 0   |
7     |        20 | RETURN_VALUE          |     |

Each column has a purpose:

1. Line number in the source code.
2. The address of the instruction — byte index in the compiled bytecode.
3. The bytecode name (opcode).
4. Operation parameters.
5. Human-readable interpretation of the operation parameters.

Alright, equipped with this knowledge and by cross-referencing the opcode set we know that:

1. RESUME — does nothing. It performs internal tracking, debugging and optimization checks.
2. LOAD_GLOBAL — loads a global variable onto the stack. From the human-readable interpretation of the opcode parameters we know that it loads dict (ignore NULL for now).
3. CALL — calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by argc — in our case it’s zero.
4. RETURN_VALUE — returns with the last element from the stack to the caller.

Compiling return {} yields one more opcode:

5. BUILD_MAP — pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack. Pops 2 * count items so that the dictionary holds count entries.

Already we have a few obvious differences between the two cases. The {} expression builds a dictionary directly, while dict() delegates that to a callable object. Before that can even happen it first needs to load the global value (dict) onto the stack — it actually does that every single time we call that function.

Why?

Because dict is not constant: it can be overwritten — and therefore — produce a different value.

1>>> def a():
2...   return dict()
3...
4>>> dict = lambda: 42
5>>>
6>>> assert a() == 42

It can happen. This is why Python needs to generate this overhead of loading and calling a callable for every call of the function.

OK, it all sound very neat. Calling a callable does create an overhead and it’s reasonable to assume that the difference we saw at the beginning of this post is a result of this overhead. However, are we sure that dict() internally calls the same code, as {} does? dict is a class and, luckily, the dis.dis function can compile classes to bytecode.

 1import dis
 2
 3class Foo:
 4    def bar(self):
 5        return 42
 6
 7    def __str__(self):
 8        return self.__class__.__name__
 9
10dis.dis(Foo)

 1Disassembly of __str__:
 2  8           0 RESUME                   0
 3
 4  9           2 LOAD_FAST                0 (self)
 5              4 LOAD_ATTR                0 (__class__)
 6             24 LOAD_ATTR                2 (__name__)
 7             44 RETURN_VALUE
 8
 9Disassembly of bar:
10  5           0 RESUME                   0
11
12  6           2 RETURN_CONST             1 (42)

Let’s try this for dict:

1>>> dis.dis(dict)
2>>>

… it doesn’t print anything? Why?

Well, the dis module isn’t very useful for internal types and dict is one of those types — defined within the interpreter’s source code.

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Getting lost in the CPython source code

---

To tap into the forbidden magic, we need to clone the CPython repository first. We don’t need all the history, so let’s --depth 1 this.

1git clone --depth 1 --branch v3.12.0 https://github.com/python/cpython.git
2# or
3git clone --depth 1 --branch v3.12.0 git@github.com:python/cpython.git

Then we need to find what we’re actually looking for — a place where opcode instructions are interpreted. After a cup of coffee and a lot of greps later we find the Python/bytecodes.c file. It consists of a single switch statement and it seems like all bytecode instruction are interpreted there.

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The dict type

---

Let’s tackle dict first. All internal types are defined as PyTypeObject objects and the dict type is defined in the dictobject.c file. It has a lot of attributes defined, but only two are of interest for us:

 1PyTypeObject PyDict_Type = {
 2    PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(&PyType_Type, 0)
 3    "dict",
 4    sizeof(PyDictObject),
 5    // ...
 6    dict_init,                                  /* tp_init */
 7    // ...
 8    dict_new,                                   /* tp_new */
 9    // ...
10};

The pair (dict_new and dict_init) will tell us what happens when someone creates a new dictionary.

The dict_new function is defined here: dictobject.c#L3751.

 1static PyObject *
 2dict_new(PyTypeObject*type, PyObject *args, PyObject*kwds)
 3{
 4    assert(type != NULL);
 5    assert(type->tp_alloc != NULL);
 6    // dict subclasses must implement the GC protocol
 7    assert(_PyType_IS_GC(type));
 8
 9    PyObject *self = type->tp_alloc(type, 0);
10    if (self == NULL) {
11        return NULL;
12    }
13    PyDictObject *d = (PyDictObject *)self;
14
15    d->ma_used = 0;
16    d->ma_version_tag = DICT_NEXT_VERSION(
17            _PyInterpreterState_GET());
18    dictkeys_incref(Py_EMPTY_KEYS);
19    d->ma_keys = Py_EMPTY_KEYS;
20    d->ma_values = NULL;
21    ASSERT_CONSISTENT(d);
22
23    // ...
24
25    return self;
26}

We see that first, it allocates a new object via the provided allocator (9^th line) and then sets some of its internal fields (15^th, 19^th, and 20^th). Interestingly for us, it does not pre-allocate the dictionary’s internal memory (see marked lines). It might seems strange at first, but please remember: an object’s initialization — like memory pre-allocation — is not a responsibility of the __new__ method, that what the __init__ method is for.

With the new object in memory, the dict_init function can insert entries to it. The insertion logic is delegated to the dict_update_common function, which can be found here: dictobject.c#L2678.

 1static int
 2dict_update_common(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds,
 3                   const char *methname)
 4{
 5    PyObject *arg = NULL;
 6    int result = 0;
 7
 8    if (!PyArg_UnpackTuple(args, methname, 0, 1, &arg)) {
 9        result = -1;
10    }
11    else if (arg != NULL) {
12        result = dict_update_arg(self, arg);
13    }
14
15    if (result == 0 && kwds != NULL) {
16        if (PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(kwds))
17            result = PyDict_Merge(self, kwds, 1);
18        else
19            result = -1;
20    }
21    return result;
22}

It updates the dictionary from both args and kwargs.

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args & dict_update_arg

---

For args it calls the dict_update_arg function.

 1static int
 2dict_update_arg(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg)
 3{
 4    if (PyDict_CheckExact(arg)) {
 5        return PyDict_Merge(self, arg, 1);
 6    }
 7    PyObject *func;
 8    if (_PyObject_LookupAttr(arg, &_Py_ID(keys), &func) < 0) {
 9        return -1;
10    }
11    if (func != NULL) {
12        Py_DECREF(func);
13        return PyDict_Merge(self, arg, 1);
14    }
15    return PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(self, arg, 1);
16}

The function checks if arg is a dictionary, if so it merges the two (PyDict_Merge), otherwise it adds new entries from a sequence of pairs (PyDict_MergeFromSeq2).

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kwargs & PyDict_Merge

---

The kwargs path ends in the same place — PyDict_Merge. Let’s take a look.

Internally, it delegates all logic to the dict_merge function.

 1static int
 2dict_merge(PyInterpreterState *interp, PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int override)
 3{
 4    PyDictObject *mp, *other;
 5
 6    assert(0 <= override && override <= 2);
 7
 8    /* We accept for the argument either a concrete dictionary object,
 9     * or an abstract "mapping" object.  For the former, we can do
10     * things quite efficiently.  For the latter, we only require that
11     * PyMapping_Keys() and PyObject_GetItem() be supported.
12     */
13    if (a == NULL || !PyDict_Check(a) || b == NULL) {
14        PyErr_BadInternalCall();
15        return -1;
16    }
17    mp = (PyDictObject*)a;
18    if (PyDict_Check(b) && (Py_TYPE(b)->tp_iter == (getiterfunc)dict_iter)) {
19
20        // ...
21    else {
22        /* Do it the generic, slower way */
23
24        // ...
25    }
26    ASSERT_CONSISTENT(a);
27    return 0;
28}

From the comment, we know that the function has been optimized for being called with another dictionary as a parameter. If the parameter is not a dictionary, then it’s a generic Mapping — a container object that supports arbitrary key lookups.

---

The {} expression

---

The literal expression should be easier to reason about. Let’s go back to the bytecode.c file and find mapping for the BUILD_MAP opcode.

 1inst(BUILD_MAP, (values[oparg*2] -- map)) {
 2    map = _PyDict_FromItems(
 3            values, 2,
 4            values+1, 2,
 5            oparg);
 6    if (map == NULL)
 7        goto error;
 8
 9    DECREF_INPUTS();
10    ERROR_IF(map == NULL, error);
11}

See sources here: bytecode.c#L1541.

We see that the dictionary is fully constructed and returned by _PyDict_FromItems. Let’s go there.

 1PyObject *
 2_PyDict_FromItems(PyObject *const *keys, Py_ssize_t keys_offset,
 3                  PyObject *const *values, Py_ssize_t values_offset,
 4                  Py_ssize_t length)
 5{
 6    bool unicode = true;
 7    PyObject *const *ks = keys;
 8    PyInterpreterState *interp = _PyInterpreterState_GET();
 9
10    for (Py_ssize_t i = 0; i < length; i++) {
11        if (!PyUnicode_CheckExact(*ks)) {
12            unicode = false;
13            break;
14        }
15        ks += keys_offset;
16    }
17
18    PyObject *dict = dict_new_presized(interp, length, unicode);
19    if (dict == NULL) {
20        return NULL;
21    }
22
23    ks = keys;
24    PyObject *const *vs = values;
25
26    for (Py_ssize_t i = 0; i < length; i++) {
27        PyObject *key = *ks;
28        PyObject *value = *vs;
29        if (PyDict_SetItem(dict, key, value) < 0) {
30            Py_DECREF(dict);
31            return NULL;
32        }
33        ks += keys_offset;
34        vs += values_offset;
35    }
36
37    return dict;
38}

I’ve marked the most interesting line: in opposition to dict_new, it pre-allocates the dictionary, so it already has a capacity for all of its entries. After that it inserts key-value pairs one-by-one.

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Conclusions

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To sum things up.

When you do dict(a=1, b=2), Python needs to:

• allocate a new PyObject,
• construct a dict via the __new__ method,
• call its __init__ method, which internally calls PyDict_Merge,
• because kwargs is not dict, PyDict_Merge needs to use the slower method, which inserts entries one-by-one.

Whereas doing {} causes Python to:

• construct a new pre-allocated dictionary,
• insert entries one-by-one.

To be fair, unless you construct dictionaries in a loop, I don’t believe there’s a lot to gain performance-wise by switching from dict to {}. There’s one thing I’d like you to remember after reading this post:

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Appendix

---

Similar analysis can be done for lists, sets, and (possibly) tuples. However, this post is already too long, so I’ll drop all the other resources I’ve gathered here.

---

Lists

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1$ python -m timeit "list((1, 2, 'a'))"
25000000 loops, best of 5: 53.4 nsec per loop
3$ python -m timeit "[1, 2, 'a']"
410000000 loops, best of 5: 29.7 nsec per loop

---

list type

---

The Python’s list type is defined in the listobject.c file:

1PyTypeObject PyList_Type = {
2    // ...
3    (initproc)list___init__, /* tp_init */
4    PyType_GenericAlloc, /* tp_alloc */
5    PyType_GenericNew, /* tp_new */
6    // ...
7}

PyType_GenericNew does nothing — it ignores args and kwargs, and return an object allocated by type->typ_alloc. Source: https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Objects/typeobject.c#L1768

PyType_GenericAlloc allocated a new object and (if it’s garbage-collectable) marks it as “to-be-collected”.

list___init__ is a convenience wrapper around the list___init___impl function, which does the actual initialization. It does some basic pre-steps:

• fails if any kwarg has been passed,
• fails if args has more than 1 element,
• converts the first argument of args to an iterable.

list___init___impl clears the list (if not empty) and extends it by the provided iterable (by calling the list_extend function).

1list((1, 2, 3))
2
3_tmp = list()
4_tmp.extend((1, 2, 3))

---

[] literal expression

---

Opcode BUILD_LIST uses the _PyList_FromArraySteal function to construct a list object and return it.

1while (--oparg >= 0) {
2    PyObject *item = POP();
3    PyList_SET_ITEM(list, oparg, item);
4}

The _PyList_FromArraySteal helper creates an empty list (if there are no items), or preallocates the list before inserting items to it.

1PyObject **dst = list->ob_item;
2memcpy(dst, src, n * sizeof(PyObject *));

---

Sets

---

1$ python -m timeit "set((1, 2))"
25000000 loops, best of 5: 82.6 nsec per loop
3$ python -m timeit "{1, 2}"
45000000 loops, best of 5: 45.5 nsec per loop

---

set type

---

The Python’s set type is defined in the setobject.c file:

1PyTypeObject PySet_Type = {
2    // ...
3    (initproc)set_init, /* tp_init */
4    PyType_GenericAlloc, /* tp_alloc */
5    set_new, /* tp_new */
6    // ...
7}

set_new uses the allocated to create a new empty set object. Internally it calls the make_new_set function.

set_init performs some pre-steps:

• fails if any kwarg has been passed,
• fails if args has more then 1 element,
• converts the first argument of args to an iterable,
• if the set object has already been filled, then it clears it

… and calls the set_update_internal function, to insert values into the set object.

---

{1, 2} literal expression

---

The opcode handler has no dedicated helpers. It constructs a new set (empty), and then iterates over all items from the stack and insets them one-by-one.

 1inst(BUILD_SET, (values[oparg] -- set)) {
 2    set = PySet_New(NULL);
 3    if (set == NULL)
 4    GOTO_ERROR(error);
 5    int err = 0;
 6    for (int i = 0; i < oparg; i++) {
 7        PyObject *item = values[i];
 8        if (err == 0)
 9            err = PySet_Add(set, item);
10        Py_DECREF(item);
11    }
12    if (err != 0) {
13        Py_DECREF(set);
14        ERROR_IF(true, error);
15    }
16}

Source: https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Python/bytecodes.c#L1627.

1   2 BUILD_SET                0
2   4 LOAD_CONST               1 (frozenset({1, 2, 3}))
3   6 SET_UPDATE               1
4   8 RETURN_VALUE

---

Tuples

---

This one’s tricky. Constructing a tuple with the tuple type requires an iterable. The easiest way of getting one it to create a tuple literal, which is obviously less efficient, than using a tuple literal syntax in the first place.

 1>>> import sys
 2>>> sys.version_info
 3sys.version_info(major=3, minor=12, micro=1, releaselevel='final', serial=0)
 4>>>
 5>>> def a():
 6...   return tuple((1, 2, []))
 7>>>
 8>>> def b():
 9...   return (1, 2, [])
10>>>
11>>> import dis
12>>>
13>>> dis.dis(a)
14  1           0 RESUME                   0
15
16  2           2 LOAD_GLOBAL              1 (NULL + tuple)
17             12 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
18             14 LOAD_CONST               2 (2)
19             16 BUILD_LIST               0
20             18 BUILD_TUPLE              3
21             20 CALL                     1
22             28 RETURN_VALUE
23>>> dis.dis(b)
24  1           0 RESUME                   0
25
26  2           2 LOAD_CONST               1 (1)
27              4 LOAD_CONST               2 (2)
28              6 BUILD_LIST               0
29              8 BUILD_TUPLE              3
30             10 RETURN_VALUE

It might not make much sense to include this example in the article.

---

tuple type

---

The Python’s tuple type is defined in tupleobject.c. Interestingly, it has no tp_alloc, nor tp_init.

1PyTypeObject PyTuple_Type = {
2    // ...
3    0, /* tp_init */
4    0, /* tp_alloc */
5    tuple_new, /* tp_new */
6    // ...
7}

The tuple_new function is responsible for allocating a new tuple object, with the items passed as a parameter.